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Pakistan is mostly a dry country characterized by extremes of altitude and temperature. It is divided by the River Indus, which enters the country in the north-east and flows south into the Arabian Sea. The Indus forms the demarcation line between two of Pakistan’s main topographic areas—the Indus Plain, which extends principally along the eastern side of the river, and the Balochistan Plateau, which lies to the south-west. Four other topographic areas are the coastal plain, a narrow strip of land bordering the Arabian Sea; the Kharan Basin, to the west of the Balochistan Plateau; and the Thar Desert (or Great Indian Desert), which straddles the border with India in the south-east; and the mountains of the north and north-west, including the Hindu Kush. The Indus Plain in Pakistan varies in width from about 80 to 320 km (50 to 200 mi) and covers an area of about 518,000 sq km (200,000 sq mi). From north to south it includes portions of two main regions, namely, the Punjab Plain and the Sind Plain. The Punjab region is drained by the Sutlej, Ravi, Chenab, and Jhelum rivers, which are tributaries of the Indus; and supply the irrigation system that waters the Indus Plain.The upland Balochistan Plateau is bordered by a series of mountain ranges; among these are the Tobakakar Range, the Siahan Range, the Sulaiman Range, and the Kirthar Range. The highest peak in the northern mountains is Tirich Mir (7,690 m/25,230 ft) in the Hindu Kush. The Sefěd Koh Range is pierced by the Khyber Pass on the Pakistan-Afghanistan border. The highest peak in Pakistan is K2 (also known as Mount Godwin-Austen). Rising 8,611 m (28,250 ft) above sea level in the Karakorum Range, the peak is located in the region of Jammu and Kashmir controlled by Pakistan. K2 is the second-highest mountain in the world, after Mount Everest. A range of natural hazards disrupt or claim life: these include frequent earthquakes, which may be severe especially in the north and west, and flooding along the Indus after heavy rains in July and August. The country overall has limited natural fresh water resources and many people do not have access to clean drinking water. As in many developing countries, deforestation, soil erosion, and desertification are also major problems. |
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The climate of Pakistan varies widely with topography, but is generally continental in type. In the mountain regions of the north and west, temperatures fall below freezing during the winter. In the Indus Plain area, temperatures range between about 32° and 49° C (90° and 120° F) in summer; the winter average is about 13° C (55° F). Throughout most of Pakistan rainfall is scarce. The Punjab region receives the most precipitation—more than 508 mm (20 in) per year. The arid regions of the south-east and south-west receive less than 127 mm (5 in) annually. Most rain falls between July and September. Pakistan’s resources are primarily agricultural. Mineral resources include salt, chromite, coal, gypsum, limestone, iron ore, sulphur, clay, graphite, manganese, copper, oil, and natural gas, but many known mineral deposits, particularly iron ore and coal, are low grade. Oil was first discovered in small quantities in 1915; intensive exploration during the 1980s revealed several new fields, notably in Sindh Province. Large natural gas fields were discovered in the 1950s on the border between Balochistan and Punjab provinces. |
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The vegetation of Pakistan varies according to elevation and rainfall. In much of the country the natural vegetation is limited to drought-resistant grasses and stunted trees. Alpine flora grows on the higher mountain slopes. The wetter slopes are wooded; species include spruce, evergreen oak, chir or cheer pine, and a cedar known as the deodar. Pakistan has a varied animal life. Species include deer, boar, bear, crocodile, and waterfowl. In the freshwater and salt-water areas, fish of many varieties are found. Marine species include herring, mackerel and sharks, as well as shellfish. |
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The ethnic background of Pakistan’s population is extremely varied, largely because the country lies in an area that has been repeatedly invaded since earliest times. The people come from such ethnic stocks as Dravidian, Indo-Aryan, Greek, Scythian, Hun, Arab, Mongol, Persian, Turkish, and Afghan. Population Characteristics Pakistan, a highly populated country, has a population (1995 estimate) of about 129,808,000 (not including the disputed territories of Jammu and Kashmir), yielding an average population density of about 163.1 people per sq km (422 per sq mi). The birth rate in Pakistan in 1995 was 38.4 births for every 1,000 people. Average life expectancy is 62 years for men and 64 years for women. About 32 per cent of the people live in urban areas. There were an estimated 1.5 million refugees from Afghanistan in the country in 1994. |
| up Principal Cities Pakistan’s largest city and commercial and industrial centre is Karachi, with a population (1981 census) of about 5.1 million. Other significant urban centres are Lahore (2.92 million), an industrial centre; Faisalabad (1.1 million), a centre of the cotton industry; Rawalpindi (928,000), an industrial and military centre; Hyderabad (795,000), an agricultural and manufacturing centre; Multan (730,000); and Peshawar (555,000), the hub of trade with Afghanistan. Islamabad (201,000) is the federal capital of Pakistan. Pakistan has four provinces—North-West Frontier, Balochistan, Punjab, and Sindh—plus the Federal Capital Territory of Islamabad and federally administered tribal areas |
| up Religion Islam is the faith of about 97 per cent of the people. Hinduism and Christianity form the leading minority religions; other religious groups include Sikhs, Parsees, and a small number of Buddhists. The constitution defines Pakistan as an Islamic nation and, as amended in 1986 and 1991, makes Islamic Shari‘ah law the supreme law of Pakistan. Freedom of religion is guaranteed, however, by the constitution. Language The national language of Pakistan is Urdu, but comparatively few people use it as their mother tongue. Punjabi is probably the most widely spoken language, followed by Sindhi, Pashto, Saraiki, and Baloch respectively. English is extensively used by educated people and is the official language of Pakistan. |
| up Education About 34 per cent of adult Pakistanis are literate. Although the constitution prescribes free and compulsory primary education, this remains a goal to be achieved; only about 40 per cent of five- to nine-year-olds are enrolled in school. Five years has been established as the period of primary school attendance. Adult literacy programmes play an important role in boosting literacy levels. Pakistan spends an estimated 2.7 per cent of its gross national product (GNP) on education. In the mid-1990s about 16.7 million pupils were enrolled in primary and pre-primary schools, and about 5.7 million students attended the various forms of secondary school including vocational schools. In addition, about 794,000 students attended institutions of higher education. Pakistan has 24 universities, mostly established in the late 19th century. Among the leading universities are the University of Karachi (founded 1951), the University of the Punjab (1882), in Lahore; the University of Peshawar (1950); the University of Sind (1947), in Dadu; and the University of Agriculture (1909), in Faisalabad. |
| up As a Muslim nation, Pakistan is strongly influenced by the culture and traditions of Islam. Hindu and British influences, however, are widespread in the country. Karachi is the seat of some of the most important libraries in Pakistan; these include the Liaquat Memorial Library, the Central Secretariat Library, and the University of Karachi library. Also of note are the National Archives of Pakistan, in Islamabad, and the Punjab Public Library, in Lahore. The National Museum of Pakistan, in Karachi, contains important materials from the Indus Valley civilizations, as well as Buddhist and Islamic artefacts. Cultural materials are also displayed in the Lahore Museum and in the Peshawar Museum. There is an Industrial and Commercial Museum in Lahore. up Economy The economy of Pakistan grew by an average 5.1 per cent annually during the period from 1965 to 1980, despite setbacks in the early 1970s caused by the secession of East Pakistan in 1971. During the 1980s and early 1990s, following the introduction of economic liberalization policies, the rate increased, and gross domestic product (GDP) growth remains strong, running at roughly 5 per cent per annum. The current growth target for GDP is 7 per cent. The budget deficit was reduced to 5.6 per cent of GDP at the end of 1994-1995, having been 8 per cent two years earlier. Pakistan attracted US$2,600 million in foreign investment in 1996 from bilateral and multilateral sources. Despite these improvements, the economy remains vulnerable to crisis and the majority of the nation’s citizens remain poor and heavily dependent on the agricultural sector for their livelihoods. This is largely a result of the country’s high rate of population increase, but political factors, in particular heavy military spending and continuing sectarian and political violence, have also slowed economic growth and modernization. In 1994 Pakistan’s GNP was about US$60,000 million, giving an average per capita income of US$460. The trade deficit rose to US$22,200 million in 1995, over three times that of 1994. As a result, a number of stabilization reforms were introduced in 1995, which included a 7 per cent devaluation of the Pakistani rupee. The government of Pakistan has been deeply involved in directing the country’s economy; most major industries were nationalized during the 1970s. Pakistan receives considerable economic assistance from foreign countries and from international organizations. The government has been under pressure from the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and other donors to continue the economic reforms and austerity measures begun in 1993. In mid-December 1995 the IMF approved a US$600 million standby loan and urged Pakistan to move forward with economic liberalization. Since the 1980s, as part of efforts to increase growth and employment private companies have been allowed into previously state-controlled sectors, such as banking, water, and other utilities. Public-debt servicing accounts for 35 per cent of budget expenditure, military spending accounts for about 26 per cent, and development, 23 per cent. The 1988-1993 seventh five-year plan allowed private investors to set up businesses without having to seek government permission—as previously—in all economic sectors except arms and alcohol production. Many people go abroad to work. The eighth five-year plan is running from 1993-1998; there is also a perspective plan for 1993-2008. The annual budget in the mid-1990s included an estimated US$12,500 million in revenue and US$14,000 million in expenditure. |
| up Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing About 27 per cent of Pakistan’s total land area, predominantly in the Indus Valley, is considered arable; most cultivated land is irrigated. Agriculture and related activities involve almost half the work force and provide over one quarter of GDP. By the late 1970s an intensive land-reform effort had resulted in the expropriation of some 1.2 million hectares (3 million acres) from landlords, the distribution of almost half of this to tenants, and the limitation of individual holdings to 40 hectares (100 acres) of irrigated, or 81 hectares (200 acres) of non-irrigated land. Formerly an importer of wheat, Pakistan achieved self-sufficiency in grain by the mid-1970s, and is now also a major exporter of rice. Principal crops in 1995 (with output in tonnes) included sugar cane, 47.2 million; wheat, 17.0 million; rice, 5.7 million; cotton, 1.8 million; and maize, 1.3 million. Most people living in rural areas keep some animals; those living in the arid upland areas, such as the Balochistan Plateau, are generally pastoralists, living nomadic or semi-nomadic lives. The livestock population in the mid-1990s included an estimated 19 million cattle, 29 million sheep, 44 million goats, 20 million buffalo, 4 million donkeys, 1.1 million camels, and 135 million chickens. About 5 per cent of Pakistan is forested. Most of the 29 million cu m (1,024 million cu ft) of roundwood harvested in 1994 was used as fuel. Fishing resources are extensive. In 1994 the total catch was about 552,000 tonnes, most of it obtained from the Indian Ocean. The fish caught include sardines, sharks, and anchovies; the shrimp catch is also important. up Mining In 1995 the most important minerals (with annual production in tonnes) included gypsum (620,000), rock salt (890,000), limestone (9.7 million), bauxite (4,400), chromite (13,000), and coal and lignite (3 million). Crude oil production was about 19.9 million barrels, and production of natural gas was about 17.7 million cu m (625 million cu ft). up Manufacturing Pakistan’s manufacturing capacity is increasing and production has been steadily expanding. In the mid-1990s manufacturing accounted for about 18 per cent of GDP, as compared with 14 per cent in 1965; the service sector, including the state bureaucracy, accounted for 31 per cent. Important products include processed foods; leather; clothing and footwear; cotton and jute textiles; cotton, silk, and rayon cloth; refined petroleum; cement; fertilizers; sugar; cigarettes; soda ash; bicycles; steel billets and sheets; and chemicals. Handicraft products, such as pottery and carpets, are also important. Government policy since the late 1970s has been to encourage private-sector investment in industry. However, the largest plants are still mainly state owned, including those producing cement, fertilizer, steel, and ghee (clarified butter) for cooking. |
| up Energy About 60 per cent of Pakistan’s electricity is produced in thermal installations, and most of the rest is generated in hydroelectric facilities, including the large Tarbela project on the River Indus. Pakistan also has a small nuclear sector; a nuclear power plant situated near Karachi contributes under 1 per cent of total output. Pakistan’s output of electricity in 1995 was 53.3 billion kWh, based on an installed generating capacity of 8,430 MW. up Currency and Banking The monetary unit of Pakistan is the Pakistani rupee of 100 paisa (44 rupees equal US$1; 1998). The State Bank of Pakistan, established in 1948, is the central bank. It issues banknotes; manages currency, credit, the public debt, and exchange controls; and supervises the commercial banks. Pakistani banks were nationalized in 1974. A number of major foreign banks (21) maintain offices in the country. The practices of banks and other financial institutions are regulated, in part, by Islamic law. They are not permitted, under 1985 legislation, to pay interest on domestic transactions, or—under a 1991 Federal Shari‘ah (Islamic) Court ruling—to charge interest. Instead banks operate a system of investment partnerships with customers. up Commerce and Trade Pakistan’s foreign trade consists largely of exports of raw materials and basic products such as cotton yarn, and imports of manufactured products. In 1996 exports earned about US$8,300 million and imports cost US$12,000 million. The chief exports were textiles and fabrics; clothing; rice; carpets and rugs; leather; fish; and cotton. The main imports were machinery; electrical equipment; petroleum products; transport equipment; oils and fats; metal and metal products; and organic chemicals. Pakistan’s leading trade partners included Japan, the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, Saudi Arabia, and France. Tourism is of increasing importance in Pakistan’s foreign currency earnings. In 1994 there were around 454,353 tourist arrivals; the foreign exchange receipts from tourism in 1994 were US$126.2 million. up Transport Lack of a modern transport network has been a major hindrance to Pakistan’s development. Its terrain, laced with rivers and mountains, presents formidable obstacles to internal land transport. The country has about 216,564 km (134,572 mi) of roads, of which 53 per cent are all-weather roads. In 1996 there were 732,100 motor vehicles in Pakistan, with a ratio of 135 people per car. The railway network operated by Pakistan Railways totals about 8,160 km (5,070 mi) of track. Karachi is the principal port; a second major port, Muhammad bin Qasim, was opened in the early 1980s. Pakistan International Airlines (PIA), 56 per cent government owned, provides domestic as well as overseas service to about 30 countries. The main international airports serve Karachi, Lahore, Islamabad, Peshawar, and Quetta. |
| up Communications In the mid-1990s Pakistan had more than 2.5 million telephones, 12 million radios, and 2.5 million television sets. The Pakistan Television Corporation transmits eight channels. Transmissions first began in Lahore in 1964, followed by Karachi in 1966. Newspapers are mainly printed in Urdu and English. In 1994 Pakistan had 130 dailies and 269 weeklies, most with small circulations. The major dailies are concentrated in Lahore and Karachi. The average circulation of all dailies in the mid-1990s was just over 1 million. up Government Pakistan is an Islamic republic with a federal system of government. Following the secession of East Pakistan in 1971, Pakistan adopted a new constitution in 1973 to replace the one in operation since 1956. Following the military coup d’état of 1977, however, a system of martial law was put into effect, and most aspects of the 1973 constitution were suspended. In 1985 parliamentary government was re-established, martial law was ended, and the constitution restored, after amendments extending the powers of the president, including those of appointing and dismissing ministers and vetoing new legislation. Legislation enacted in 1991 made Shari‘ah, or Islamic law, the supreme law of the land. A constitutional court rules on matters relating to the constitution, and can overrule presidential decisions. On April 1, 1997, the federal legislature revoked sections of the constitution’s eighth amendment, in effect reducing the powers of the president in order to restore power to the elected government. The legislation, known as the 13th amendment, has brought the presidency back under the control of the prime minister; the president may not dismiss parliament without the prime minister’s permission. up Executive and Legislature According to the 1973 constitution, as amended in 1985, the head of state of Pakistan is a president, elected to a five-year term by a college of deputies from the federal and provincial assemblies. The chief executive is the prime minister, who is responsible to the legislature. Legislative power is vested in the bicameral federal legislature (Majilis-e-Shoora). The National Assembly has 217 seats, including 10 reserved for religious minority representatives. Members are directly elected by universal suffrage for terms of up to five years. The Senate has 87 seats (two for women). Members are indirectly elected by the provincial legislatures; senators serve six-year terms. |
| up Political Parties During the period of martial law (1977-1985) political parties were first severely limited in their activities and then, in October 1979, banned outright. They were allowed to resume their activities in December 1985. The first proper elections after the ending of military rule were won by the Pakistan People’s Party (PPP), founded in the 1960s by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, and the dominant party in the country in the period before martial law. Bhutto’s daughter, Benazir, became Prime Minister, but was dismissed by the president in August 1990. After a short period of emergency rule, new elections in October 1990 were won by the Islamic Democratic Alliance. The PPP became the main opposition party until 1993 when a new crisis led to the dismissal of the prime minister and a general election, which returned the PPP and Benazir Bhutto to power. The Pakistan Muslim League (PML) emerged as the main opposition party, and won the 1997 elections with a huge majority. up Judiciary The highest court in Pakistan is the Supreme Court. The judicial system in each province is headed by a High Court. A Federal Shari‘ah Court has been established to determine whether any law is wholly or partially un-Islamic. In 1991 parliament passed a law obliging the criminal code to conform to Islamic law. In 1992 the death penalty, in abeyance since 1986, was reintroduced. up Local Government Pakistan is divided into four provinces—Balochistan, North-West Frontier Province, Punjab, and Sindh—the Federal Capital Territory of Islamabad, and the federally administered tribal areas along the north-west border with Afghanistan. Provincial governors, appointed by the president of Pakistan, are assisted by elected provincial legislative assemblies. For local government purposes, the provinces are subdivided into divisions, districts, and agencies. The tribal areas—Khyber, Kurram, Malakand, Mohmand, North Waziristan, and South Waziristan—are officially administered by political agents responsible to the federal government. The laws of Pakistan do not operate in these areas, and they are administered according to the traditional customs of their people. Azad Kashmir, the western part of the area of Jammu and Kashmir controlled by Pakistan, has its own government, president, prime minister, and courts. The northern portion—Gilgit, Diamir, and Baltistan—is directly administered by the federal government. |
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Health
and Welfare
Health services in Pakistan are
limited by a lack of finance and facilities. In 1994 the country had about 66,200 doctors
(1 per 2,064 people) and some 80,900 beds in hospitals and clinics. In 1976 an old-age
pension system was inaugurated, but it covers relatively few Pakistanis. In 1996 the
infant mortality rate was 79 deaths for every 1,000 live births. Pakistan spends an
estimated 3.5 per cent of GDP on health care.
up
Defence
Military service in Pakistan is
voluntary. In 1995 the country’s armed forces had about 587,000 members, with 520,000
in the army, 45,000 in the air force, and 22,000 in the navy. Pakistan is not a signatory
to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), and officially became a nuclear power when
it conducted underground tests in May 1998. As a proportion of GDP, Pakistan’s
spending on defence is around three times that of its main rival nation, India; arms
imports in 1993 amounted to US$430 million.
British Rule and Muslim League The British ruled the Indian subcontinent for nearly 200 years—from 1756 to 1947. After the Indian Mutiny of 1857, the British government abolished the powers of the British East India Company, which had ruled the sub-continent on behalf of the British Crown, and took on direct powers of governance. Political reforms were initiated, allowing the formation of political parties. The Indian National Congress, representing the overwhelming majority of Hindus, was created in 1885. The Muslim League was formed in 1906 to represent and protect the position of the Muslim minority. When the British introduced constitutional reforms in 1909, the Muslims demanded and acquired separate electoral rolls. This guaranteed Muslims representation in the provincial as well as national legislatures until the dawn of independence in 1947. The idea of a separate Muslim state in south Asia was raised in 1930 by the poet and philosopher Sir Muhammad Iqbal. He suggested that the north-western provinces of British India and the native state of Jammu and Kashmir should be joined into such a state. The name "Pakistan", which came to be used to describe this grouping, is thought to have originated as a compound abbreviation made up of letters of the names of the provinces involved, as follows: Punjab, Afghania (North West Frontier Province), Kashmir, Indus-Sindh, and Balochistan. An alternative explanation says the name means "Land of the Pure". By the end of the 1930s, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, leader of the Muslim League and considered the founding father of Pakistan, had also decided that the only way to preserve Indian Muslims from Hindu domination was to establish a separate Muslim state. |
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In 1940 the Muslim League formally endorsed the partitioning of British India and the creation of Pakistan as a separate Muslim state. During pre-independence talks in 1946, therefore, the British government found that the stand of the Muslim League on separation and that of the Congress on the territorial unity of India were irreconcilable. The British then decided on partition and on August 15, 1947, transferred power dividedly to India and Pakistan. The latter, however, came into existence in two parts: West Pakistan, as Pakistan stands today, and East Pakistan, now known as Bangladesh. The two were separated by 1,600 km (1,000 mi) of Indian territory. |
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The division of the subcontinent caused tremendous dislocations of populations. Some 6 million Hindus and Sikhs moved from Pakistan into India, and about 8 million Muslims migrated from India to Pakistan. The demographic shift was accompanied by considerable inter-ethnic violence, including massacres, that reinforced bitterness between the two countries. This bitterness was further intensified by disputes over the accession of the former native states of India to either country. Nearly all of these 562 widely scattered polities had joined either India or Pakistan; the princes of Hyderabad, Junagadh, and Kashmir, however, had chosen to join neither country. On August 15, 1947, these three states became technically independent, but when the Muslim ruler of Junagadh, with its predominantly Hindu population, joined Pakistan a month later, India annexed his territory. Hyderabad’s Muslim prince, ruling over a mostly Hindu population, tried to postpone any decision indefinitely, but in September 1948 India also settled that issue by pre-emptive annexation. The Hindu ruler of Jammu and Kashmir, whose subjects were 85 per cent Muslim, decided to join India. Pakistan, however, questioned his right to do so, and a war broke out between India and Pakistan. Although the UN subsequently resolved that a plebiscite be held under UN auspices to determine the future of Kashmir, India continued to occupy about two thirds of the state and refused to hold a plebiscite. This deadlock, which still persists, has intensified suspicion and antagonism between the two countries. |
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The first independent government of Pakistan was headed by Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan. Muhammad Ali Jinnah was Governor-General until his death in 1948. From 1947 to 1951 the country functioned under unstable conditions. The government endeavoured to create a new national capital to replace Karachi, organize the bureaucracy and the armed forces, resettle refugees, and contend with provincial politicians who often defied its authority. Failing to offer any programme of economic and social reform, however, it did not capture the popular imagination. In his foreign policy Liaquat established friendly relations with the United States, when he visited President Harry S. Truman in 1950. Liaquat’s United States visit injected bitterness into Pakistan’s relations with the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) because Liaquat had previously accepted an invitation from Moscow that never materialized in a visit. The United States gave no substantial aid to Pakistan until three years later, but the USSR, Pakistan’s close neighbour, had been alienated. After Liaquat was assassinated in 1951, Khwaja Nazimuddin, an East Pakistani who had been Governor-General since Jinnah’s death, became Prime Minister. Unable to prevent the erosion of the Muslim League’s popularity in East Pakistan, however, he was forced to yield to another East Pakistani, Muhammad Ali Bogra, in 1953. When the Muslim League was routed in East Pakistani elections in 1954, the Governor-General dissolved the constituent assembly as no longer representative. The new assembly that met in 1955 was no longer dominated by the Muslim League. Muhammad Ali Bogra was then replaced by Chaudhuri Muhammad Ali, a West Pakistani. At the same time, Iskander Mirza became the Governor-General of the country. The new constituent assembly enacted a bill, which became effective in October 1955, integrating the four West Pakistani provinces into one political and administrative unit. The assembly also produced a new constitution, which was adopted on March 2, 1956. It declared Pakistan an Islamic republic. Mirza was elected Provisional President. |
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The new constitution notwithstanding, political instability continued because no stable majority party emerged in the National Assembly. Prime Minister Ali remained in office only until September 1956, when he was succeeded by Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy, leader of the Awami League of East Pakistan. His tenure lasted for slightly more than a year. When President Mirza discovered that Suhrawardy was planning an alliance between East and West Pakistani political forces by supporting the presidential aspirations of Firoz Khan Noon, leader of the Republican Party, he forced the prime minister to resign. The succeeding coalition government, headed by Ismail Ibrahim Chundrigar, lasted only two months before it was replaced by a Republican Party Cabinet under Noon. President Mirza, however, found that his influence among the Republicans was diminishing and that the new prime minister had come to an understanding with Suhrawardy. Against such a coalition Mirza had no chance of being re-elected president. He proclaimed martial law on October 7, 1958, dismissed Noon’s government, and dissolved the national assembly. The president was supported by General Muhammad Ayub Khan, Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces, who was named chief martial-law administrator. Twenty days later Ayub forced the president to resign and assumed the presidency himself. |
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Ayub ruled Pakistan almost absolutely for more than ten years, and his regime made some notable achievements, although it did not eliminate the basic problems of Pakistani society. A land reforms commission appointed by Ayub distributed some 900,000 hectares (2.2 million acres) of land among 150,000 tenants. The reforms, however, did not erase feudal relationships in the countryside; about 6,000 landlords still retained an area three times larger than that given to the 150,000 tenants. During Ayub’s regime developmental funds to East Pakistan increased more than threefold. This had a noticeable effect on the economy of the eastern part, but the disparity between the two sectors of Pakistan was not eliminated. Perhaps the most pervasive of Ayub’s changes was his system of Basic Democracies. It created 80,000 basic democrats, or union councillors, who were leaders of rural or urban areas around the country. They constituted the electoral college for presidential elections and for elections to the national and provincial legislatures created under the constitution promulgated by Ayub in 1962. The Basic Democratic System had four tiers of government from the national to the local level. Each tier was assigned certain responsibilities in administering the rural and urban areas, such as maintenance of primary schools, public roads, and bridges. Ayub also promulgated an Islamic marriage and family laws ordinance in 1961, imposing restrictions on polygamy and divorce, and reinforcing the inheritance rights of women and minors. For a long time Ayub maintained cordial relations with the United States, stimulating substantial economic and military aid to Pakistan. This relationship, however, deteriorated in 1965, when another war with India over Kashmir broke out. The United States then suspended military and economic aid to both countries, thus denying Pakistan badly needed weapons. The USSR then intervened to mediate the conflict, inviting Ayub and Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri of India to Toshkent. By the terms of the so-called Tashkent Agreement of January 1966, the two countries withdrew their forces to pre-war positions and restored diplomatic, economic, and trade relations. Exchange programmes were initiated, and the flow of capital goods to Pakistan increased greatly. The Tashkent Agreement and the Kashmir war, however, generated frustration among the people of Pakistan and resentment against President Ayub. Foreign Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto resigned his position and agitated against Ayub’s dictatorship and the "loss" of Kashmir. In March 1969 Ayub resigned. Instead of transferring power to the speaker of the National Assembly, as the constitution dictated, he handed it over to the commander-in-chief of the army, General Agha Muhammad Yahya Khan. Yahya became President and declared martial law. |
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In an attempt to make his regime more acceptable, Yahya dismissed almost 300 senior civil servants and identified 30 families that were said to control about half of Pakistan’s gross national product. To curb their power Yahya in 1970 issued an ordinance against monopolies and restrictive trade practices. He also made commitments to transfer power to civilian authorities, but in the process of making this shift, his intended reforms broke down. The greatest challenge to Pakistan’s unity, however, was presented by East Pakistan, led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, leader of the Awami League, who insisted on a federation under which East Pakistan would be virtually independent. He envisaged a federal government that would deal with defence and foreign affairs only; even the currencies would be different, although freely convertible. His programme had great emotional appeal for East Pakistanis. In the election of December 1970 called by Yahya, Sheikh Mujib—as Mujibur Rahman was generally called—won by a landslide in East Pakistan, capturing a clear majority in the National Assembly. The Pakistan People’s Party (PPP) formed by Bhutto in 1967 emerged as the largest party in West Pakistan. Suspecting Sheikh Mujib of secessionist politics, Yahya in March 1971 postponed indefinitely the convening of the National Assembly. Mujib in return accused Yahya of collusion with Bhutto and established a virtually independent government in East Pakistan. Yahya opened negotiations with Mujib in Dhaka in mid-March, but the effort soon failed. Mujib was arrested and brought to West Pakistan to be tried for treason. Meanwhile Pakistan’s army went into action against Mujib’s civilian followers, who demanded freedom and independence for East Pakistan, or Bangladesh ("Bengali Nation") as it was to be called. There were a great many casualties during the ensuing military operations in East Pakistan, during which the Pakistani army attacked the poorly armed population. India claimed that nearly 10 million Bengali refugees crossed its borders, and stories of West Pakistani atrocities abounded. The Awami League leaders took refuge in Calcutta and established a government-in-exile. India finally intervened on December 3, 1971, and the Pakistani army surrendered 13 days later. On December 20 Yahya relinquished power to Bhutto, and in January 1972 the independent state of Bangladesh came into existence. When the Commonwealth of Nations admitted Bangladesh later that year, Pakistan withdrew from membership, not to return until 1989. However, the Bhutto government gave diplomatic recognition to Bangladesh in 1974. |